This bibliography lists the references used in The EwA Wildness Etiquette.
Wildlife Viewing Impact on Wildlife
A little sample of the vast scientific literature on the impact of wildlife entertainment facilities and wildlife tourism on the wildlife itself.
[UNEP06] Wildlife Watching and Tourism – A Study on the Benefits and Risks of a Fast Growing Tourism Activity and its Impacts on Species. UNEP/CMS (2006)
[FA02] Human-caused Disturbance Stimuli as a Form of Predation Risk. Frid, A. & Dill, L.M. (2002)
[BG98] Effects of Ecotourists on Bird Behaviour at Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge, Florida. by Burger, J; Gochfeld, M. In Environmental Conservation Vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 13-21 (1998)
[MT15] The Customer Isn’t Always Right—Conservation and Animal Welfare Implications of the Increasing Demand for Wildlife Tourism. Moorhouse, T.P. & al. (2015)
[ML16] Here are Three More Places You Can’t Visit in Thailand Anymore. McMah, L. in news.com.au (2016) — 3 popular holiday spots in Thailand have become off-limits to tourists amid fears tourism has brought the local environment to the brink of destruction.
[PJ16] Wildlife Tourism Faces Dark Days—but Revenue Soars. Platt,J. R. in Scientific American (2016)
[WAPC] World Animal Protection Campaign — Moving the world to protect animals from cruelty and suffering.
[BJ16] The Lure of Landfills: How Garbage Changes Animal Behavior. Bettel, J. NDRC (2016) — Our leftovers can be dangerous in the wrong hands, paws, or beaks.
[GM09] Environmental Implications of Plastic Debris in Marine Settings — Entanglement, Ingestion, Smothering, Hangers-on, Hitch-hiking and Alien invasions. Gregory, M. R. (2009)
[BK09] Accumulation and Fragmentation of Plastic Debris in Global Environments. Barnes, D.K. & al. (2009)
[HR14] Hands Off! Five Reasons Not to Touch Marine Wildlife
[RK03] The Effects of Trampling on Hawaiian Corals Along a Gradient of Human Use. Rodgers, K.S. & E.F. Cox. Biological Conservation 112(3): 383-389. (2003)
[KM14] Vanishing Clams on an Iberian Beach: Local Consequences and Global Implications of Accelerating Loss of Shells to Tourism. Kowalewski, M. & al. (2014)
[RC01] Ten Years after the Crime: Lasting Effects of Damage from a Cruise Ship Anchor on a Coral Reef in St. John. Rogers, C.S. & al. In Bulletin of Marine Science 69: 793-803. (2001)
[FWC] Marine Fish Feeding: Why the FWC Thinks It’s Bad for Everyone (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission)
[SJ19] Fear of Humans as Apex Predators Has Landscape-scale Impacts from Mountain Lions to Mice. Suraci, J. & al. (2019)
[KC02] How and Why Environmental Noise Impacts Animals: an Integrative, Mechanistic Review. Kight, C.R. & al. (2011)
[PA16] Small-Boat Noise Impacts Natural Settlement Behavior of Coral Reef Fish Larvae. Simpson S.D. et al. In: Popper A., Hawkins A. (eds) The Effects of Noise on Aquatic Life II. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol 875. Springer, New York, NY (2016)
[VM10] Coral Larvae Move toward Reef Sounds. Vermeij, M.J. & al. PLoS ONE; 5 (5): e10660 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010660 (2010)
[STC] Threat from Artificial Lighting (Sea Turtle Conservancy)
[DC16] Sunscreen Pollution – A Serious and Increasingly Clear Threat to Coral. Downs, C. (2016) | Marine Safe
[WL15] Chemicals In Sunscreen Are Harming Coral Reefs. Wagner, L. (2015)
[VB09] Reverse Zoonoses: Human Viruses That Infect Other Animals. in Virology Blob (2009).
[GB15] How Nature-Based Tourism Might Increase Prey Vulnerability to Predators. Geffroy, B. & al. (2015)
[GB16] Nature-Based Tourism and Prey Vulnerability to Predators: A Reply to Fitzgerald and Stronza. Geffroy, B. & al. (2016)
[AN16] Do Gorillas Even Belong in Zoos? Harambe’s Death Spurs Debate. Angier, N. in New York Times | Science (2016)
[LR16] Body of Two-year-old Attacked by Alligator at Disney World Recovered From Lake. Luscombe, R. The Guardian (2016)
[CR01] Increased Avoidance of Swimmers by Wild Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops Truncatus) Due to Long-term Exposure to Swim-with-dolphin Tourism. Constantine, R. in Marine Mammal Science Volume 17, Issue 4, pages 689–702 (2001)
[RK16] TripAdvisor Bans Ticket Sales to Attractions that Allow Contact with Wild Animals. Rushby, K. in The Guardian (2016)
[FJ16] Safari Roadkill: Kruger National Park Wants to End Mobile Apps on Where to Spot Wildlife as Speeding Motorists are Killing Animals. Flanagan, J (2016)
[DC15] Why Yellowstone Euthanized A Baby Bison After Tourist ‘Rescue’. D’Angelo, C. (2016)
Unethical Wildlife Viewing Cases
Unfortunately there are too many cases of unethical, harmful wildlife viewing events. Here are a few recent ones. And at the moment there is no trend yet that shows that a decrease in the occurrence of these events. Help wildlife by following ethical rules and sharing them widely.
[MC16] When Humans, Fueled by the Selfie Culture, Imperil Wildlife. Mele, C. (2016)
[CR15] Sea Turtles’ Chance For Life Destroyed by Selfie (2015)
[BM16] Animal Selfies: The Problem With Putting Ego Over Responsibility. in Green Global Travel (2016)
[LC16] People With Tiger Selfies Can’t Take Moral High Ground Over Trophy Hunting. Carr, L. in The Tab (2015)
[NJ16] ‘Selfies’ Cause Endangered Baby Dolphin Death. Nasar, J. Turtle Island Restoration Network (2016)
[NK15] Inside the Grim Lives of Africa’s Captive Lions. Nowak, K. National Geographic (2015)
[AZ16] Turtle Dragged From Ocean So Children Can Stand On Him. Akande, Z. (2016)
[GS16] Tiger Temple Accused of Supplying Black Market. Guynup, S. in National Geographic (2016)
— The Tiger Temple in a Thailand monastery was a wildlife park praised by tourists who refused for years to acknowledge the warnings. Finally early 2016, the proof made it to the public, and it is now established that monks at the monastery have been speed breeding the big cats for the illegal trade of tiger parts. Note well that it is just one of a number of tiger temples in Thailand who have yet to face the consequences of their cruelty. The Tiger Temple was the most famous one.
[RC16] If You Love Elephants, Don’t Ever Ride Them. Here’s Why. Russo, C. The Dodo (2015)
Wildlife Viewing Guidelines & Regulations Examples
| [Disclaimer] Under no circumstance should the reader solely rely on the list of guidelines below. This is a non-exhaustive list of resources, provided here to give a sense of what the rules are and how different they can sometimes be depending on the location, the species, etc. Additionally, viewing regulations often change and get strengthened over time as the ecotourism impact grows and spreads. Then we encourage the reader to research the venue and opportunity on her/his own and make sure that he/she is up to date with the latest guidelines and regulations. |
[YG] Wildlife Viewing Tips and Etiquettes (From The Yukon Government)
— Successful wildlife viewing is as much a matter of practice as knowledge. Wildlife viewing is a lifetime learning experience. The goal of wildlife viewing is to observe animals without interrupting their normal activities. The first thing to do is to focus on looking, then, learn a few techniques to increase your wildlife viewing skills.
[WDFH] Watch Wildlife Responsibly (From the Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife)
[WC16] Even Scientists Take Selfies with Wild Animals. Here’s Why They Shouldn’t. Ward-Paige, C.A., in The Conversation (2016)
— As scientists, we often have reasons to photograph animals in the course of our research –for example, to quickly capture information such as size, health, sex, and geographic location. But we do not have permission, or good reason, to engage in recreational activities with our animal subjects– including restraining them for selfies.
[TIES] The International Ecotourism Society (TIES)
— TIES has a good website and resource list. Also remember that nothing is more invaluable than our own research to go alongside.
[UNP] Bear Safety (From the US National Park Service)
— A bear is a bear wherever you encounter him/her, so a lot of these rules apply anywhere there are bears.
[AUD] When to Help a Baby Bird (Audubon Society)
— There are tons of misconceptions about how humans should handle baby birds, but this handy video (created by Slate and vetted by experts from Audubon and other bird groups) provides a short guide on what you need to do when you think that little bird needs your help.
[IIATO] Marine Wildlife Watching Guidelines (Whales & Dolphins, Seals and Seabirds) For Vessel & Zodiac Operations (From IIATO)
— The International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) has developed the following Wildlife Watching Guidelines to provide guidance to vessel operators while viewing cetaceans, seals, and birds in their marine environment.
[NOAA] Responsible Marine Wildlife Viewing (NOAA Guidelines)
— The site offers a very extensive sets of viewing guidelines covering different marine habitats and marine species. This set of guidelines can be used in other regions in the world for the species in question. Some species migrate, and the rules for instance, for watching a female humpback whale individual will not be radically different depending on if you see her in her nursing habitat down South or in her feeding grounds up North.
[CC08] A Review of Whale Watch Guidelines and Regulations Around the World. Version 2008. Carlson, C. College of the Atlantic (2008)
[AMMPA] Watchable Wildlife Guidelines (The Alliance of Marine Mammal Parks and Aquariums)
— Minimal sets of wildlife viewing rules with a focus on marine mammals.
[NOAA2] Viewing Marine Mammals in the Wild: A Workshop to Discuss Responsible Guidelines and Regulations for Minimizing Disturbance (NOAA)
— A non exhaustive snapshot of projects and programs on various species around the globe, and some summaries that provide useful references to articles on wildlife viewing. Note that the report is by no means exhaustive.
[BS16] A Herd of Elephants and a Gaggle of People. Bhara, S. (2016)
— Much like any human and any animal, what elephants don’t like is people getting up in their faces, crowding them, invading their personal space, and ignoring their wishes when they’ve clearly projected that they are uncomfortable.
[BS16(2)] A Visit to a Rwandan Gorilla Family. Bhara, S. (2016)
— In ‘the moment’, and when too excited by the experience, it’s very easy to forget the proper rule of conduct. Keeping a respectful distance is not just for your safety but is also about theirs (including their health). By not following the rules we are inconsiderate and unethical. Take this example of human recklessness when visiting a gorilla family in Rwanda…
[BC15] Get your ‘Bear’ings & Keep your Distance. Bagley, C. (2015)
— In the wild, remain vigilant in all circumstances and certainly so when you roam in bear country!…
Wildlife Photography & Filming
| [Disclaimer] Under no circumstance should the reader solely rely on the list of guidelines below. This is a non-exhaustive list of resources, provided here to give a sense of what the rules are and how different they can sometimes be depending on the location, the species, etc. Additionally, viewing regulations often change and get strengthened over time as the ecotourism impact grows and spreads. Then we encourage the reader to research the venue and opportunity on her/his own and make sure that he/she is up to date with the latest guidelines and regulations. |
[JR16] Empathy for Other Species is the Key to Ethical Wildlife Photography. Robertson, J. (2005)
[PC01] Into the Wild, Ethically: Nature Filmmakers Need a Code of Conduct. Palmer, C. (2011)
[DS16] Stop! Don’t Shoot Like that — A Guide to Ethical Wildlife Photography. Dattatri, S. & Sreenivasan, R. Conservation India (2016)
[LA15] Selfie Deaths Are Now More Common Than Shark Attacks. Lewis, A. in the Stylist (2015)
[MM15] Bison Selfies Are a Bad Idea: Tourist Gored in Yellowstone as Another Photo Goes Awry. Miller, M. (2015)
